Rousseauian Reflections on Economic Inequality
Throughout the course of human history, inequalities of all kinds have been present around the world, yet the current level of global wealth inequality prevalent in society today is truly extraordinary. According to the 2022 report of the Paris-based World Inequality Lab, led by star economist Thomas Piketty, the poorest half of the global population possess a mere 2% of the total wealth while the richest 10% of the global population own 76% of all wealth. In 2021, the Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report concluded that the richest 1% globally control 48% of all wealth in the world. In the face of such daunting statistics, one wonders how this impacts society, whether wealth inequality may simply be the price that must be paid to maintain a capitalist system, and ultimately why it is worth addressing.
Through analyzing key ideas from Rousseau’s Second Discourse, despite being written in 1755, it will become evident that the piece still maintains tremendous relevance for answering these normative questions surrounding economic inequality and continues to resonate with contemporary readers.
Rousseau is quick to point out that there exist two main types of inequalities that arise among humans. The first being natural inequality, primarily concerning the “differences of age, health, or bodily strength.” (174) The second is so-called moral inequality, consisting of the “different privileges which some enjoy to the prejudice of others such as being wealthier, being highly honored, [or] more powerful.” (174) The natural inequalities are not of concern for Rousseau as long as they do not transform into an artificial, moral inequality and take on the shape of domination. Thus, inequality only becomes precarious for society when it damages freedom and violates the social contract. Regarding the origin of this problematic inequality, Rousseau’s argument is that the roots of this moral inequality are caused by a type of self-love that he refers to as amour propre. This desire manifests itself as the struggle for recognition, status, and wealth within society, and it can also morph into an inflamed passion to acquire superior status over others. Today, this desire for social recognition plays out in the form of the accumulation of property and wealth, whereby individuals seek social recognition, and thus a higher social status.
Thus, it comes as no surprise that distinct social and economic classes are essential features of the engine of capitalism, which further reinforce and entrench economic inequality. To illustrate, large global corporations have used their profits to influence governmental policy and gain political power, thus in effect hijacking the political system and further exasperating wealth inequality (Gilens and Page 2014). Once in control of the political system, the rich implement laws which establish inequality within the system. In much of the so-called developed world, especially the United States, tax loopholes allow the rich to maintain their wealth. In addition, the educational system neglects teaching the youth about investing, banking, or taxes all while charging exorbitant fees for higher education resulting in over $1.6 trillion in student loan debt in America (New York Times 2022). These are all crucial instruments used by the wealthy to further their socio-economic position and by extension their power over others who have less. This in turn leaves most of the population essentially playing a game without any knowledge of the rules for how to win, forcing the masses into the involuntary shackles of dependency vis a vis the wealthy.
For Rousseau, dependency is obedience to any will other than one’s own and must be seen as an infringement on freedom. This lack of independence and the ability to be self-sufficient is the root cause of domination, resulting in an assault on freedom. When an individual becomes dependent on another individual who has something that they require to satisfy their basic needs, they become exceptionally vulnerable to those on whom they depend. Thereby their survival becomes subject to domination, as they now find themselves in a situation where the state of their freedom has become terribly insecure. In a condition comparable to slavery, the individuals find themselves less free, being tied down by the invisible shackles of their socio-economic position. There is a tragic choice. Either one satisfies one’s needs by engaging in this dominated relationship with another will, or one follows one’s own will without satisfying one’s needs. A case in point is employer-based health care in the US, whereby individuals voluntarily engage in an unsatisfactory job because their health care needs compel them to stay in a relation of dependency. An important aspect of this domination lies with the fact that there is an illusion of consent between the two parties. Both, the one who dominates and the other who is dominated, must cooperate, but they do so for different reasons. The latter cooperates out of an interest in self-preservation and is cornered, left without a choice. While the former cooperates to seek and express power, thus increasing their satisfaction relating to their amour propre.
But domination is not the only moral evil produced by economic inequality. Misery and sadness also arise together with economic inequality due to the inability to satisfy one’s fundamental desire, namely, to achieve amour propre – a recognized standing in relation to others. As Frederick Neuhouser states in his article “Rousseau’s Critique of Economic Inequality,” “when everyone seeks superior status, recognition becomes a scarce good, and rather than being available to all, it becomes the object of endless competition, conflict, and frustrated desires.” (205) Due to amour propre being an inherent aspect within human nature, the existence of large wealth disparities create situations for unhappiness to plague everyone within society. The dominated suffers from a loss of freedom and will inevitably become miserable due to their humiliating condition at the bottom of society. In addition, this initiates a hedonic treadmill of sorts. Everyone is attempting to achieve superiority at all costs and thus burdens themselves in a never-ending rat race of one-upmanship, resulting in a vicious cycle of pervasive grief and gloom in which one can only dream of escaping.
Summing, economic inequality relates in domination and misery. This is why the “Golden Age,” for Rousseau existed before modern society and was one in which no one depends on anyone else, and is therefore representative of humanity’s happiest state of being. Today’s large wealth gaps pose an existential threat to freedom and happiness that can no longer be ignored or swept under the carpet. While global wealth inequality appears near impossible to get rid of, Rousseau reminds us that economic inequality is a moral or artificial inequality. Meaning that neither nature nor God created it, but humanity did and thus humanity has the power to eliminate the underlying causes of wealth inequality for the freedom and prosperity of all.
Works Cited
I. Credit Suisse. 2022. “Global Wealth Report 2022 – Record Wealth Growth in 2021 Tapered by Challenging 2022 Market Environment.” Available online: https://www.credit-suisse.com/articles/media-releases/2022/09/en/global-wealth-report-2022---record-wealth-growth-in-2021-tapered.html.
II. Gilens, Martin. and Benjamin I. Page. 2014. “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens.” Perspectives on Politics 12/3, 564-81.
III. Neuhouser, Frederick. 2013. “Rousseau’s Critique of Economic Inequality: Reconstructing the Second Discourse.” Philosophy & Public Affairs 41 (3), 193-225.
IV. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1913 [1754] A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (The Second Discourse), transl. by Cole, G.H.D. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.
V. World Inequality Lab. 2022. World Inequality Report 2022. Paris: World Inequality Lab. Available online: https://wir2022.wid.world/.
